Micrographic Quality
D-31
Storage and
Preservation
of Microfilms
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Processing of Other Film Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Thermally Processed Silver (TPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Diazo Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Vesicular Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Special Storage and Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Underground Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Effects of Nuclear Explosions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Time-Capsule Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Handling and Filing Film Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Interfiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 1: Applicable Standards for Microfilm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 2: Storage Life of Microfilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Table 3: Storage Temperature and Relative Humidity . . . . . . . . . . 17
Summary of Requirements for Storage and
Preservation of Records on Kodak Microfilm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Storage Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References and Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
ii
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Introduction
Definitions
Photographic film remains an important
documentary material. The increasing quantity
and value of microfilm records used in financial
institutions, libraries, government offices, and
industrial firms have focused attention on the
care of such records to make certain that they
last as long as possible.
To help understand storage requirements,
the composition and structure of microfilm are
described and definitions of commonly used
terms are given.1
The distinction between photographic film records
intended for storage and those intended for use
has not always been clear. Use or work copies
are the predominant photographic records found
in libraries or record centers and are subject
to much handling due to their value as quick
references. However, because of this handling,
they are subject to dirt, abrasion, fingerprints,
contamination with foreign materials, and
exposure to excessive light, temperatures, and
harmful atmospheric pollutants. As a result, these
copies in daily use cannot be considered suitable
for long-term preservation. For long-term storage,
it is imperative to prepare duplicate copies that
meet certain criteria, such as proper filming,
duplicating, processing, minimum handling,
controlled environment, and storage.
Structure of a typical black-and-white negative film.
Acetate film—(acetate base) safety film with a
base composed principally of cellulose acetate
or triacetate.
Antihalation undercoat—separate layer of
light-absorbing dye located between the film
emulsion and the base to suppress light reflection.
During processing of this film, the dye layer
becomes transparent.
Base or support—a flexible plastic material that
is coated with a thin, light-sensitive, image-
forming layer. The thickness of the base varies
with different film types.
In general, the care needed for storing
photographic records is similar to that for
storing written paper records, although there
are some requirements peculiar to the storage
of photographic film.
Dimensional stability—ability of photographic
materials to maintain their original size and shape
during and after processing and also under
various conditions of temperature and humidity.
The permanence of photographic records
depends on the chemical stability of the film,
how the film is processed, and the conditions
under which the processed film records are
stored. The stability of the film layers is
determined in manufacture and processing, while
storage is controlled by the user. This pamphlet
discusses the composition and properties of
black-and-white silver-gelatin, thermally
processed silver (TPS), diazo, and vesicular films
as they relate to film permanence. It also
describes the essential requirements of good
processing and storage practices.
Emulsion—the image-forming layer. For
unprocessed black-and-white silver-gelatin films,
it is composed primarily of minute silver halide
crystals suspended in gelatin. Exposure to
light in a camera or printer causes no visible
effect, but there is an invisible change which
produces a “latent image.” To obtain a visible,
usable image, the exposed material must be
chemically processed.
For diazo and vesicular films, the sensitized layers
are composed of light-sensitive diazonium salts.
To obtain a visible, usable image with these films,
the exposed material is heat-processed. Diazo
films are typically heat-processed in the presence
of ammonia.
NOTE:Refer to the latest revision of each ANSI or
ISO Standard specified.
For TPS films, the image-forming layer is typically
silver halide and silver salts suspended in a
polymeric binding.
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Emulsion layer(s)—image or image-forming
layer(s) of photographic films, papers, and plates.
All silver-gelatin Kodak Microfilms on Estar Base,
when processed as recommended by Kodak,
meet the current specifications established by the
American National Standards Institute, Inc.,
(ANSI) for films intended for use as LE 500.
Film base—the plastic support for the emulsion
and backing layers.
Halation—halo or ghost around the desired
image on a photographic emulsion. (This is
caused by the reflection of rays of light from the
base to the emulsion or by internal scattering of
light within the film.)
Substratum (subbing or precoat)—the layer
that bonds the emulsion to the base.
Electronic Imaging
With the coming of electronic digital imaging
systems, the need for continuing the quality
concepts already established in the micrographics
arena has evolved. Following are a few
key concepts.
Nitrate film—a photographic film with a base
consisting of cellulose nitrate. Nitrate-base films
decompose with age and are not suitable for
permanent records. The manufacture of nitrate
film by Eastman Kodak Company in the United
States of America was discontinued in 1951, but
older nitrate motion-picture films are often found in
storage. It is not always possible to determine by
visual examination if a film has a nitrate base.
However, neither KODAK nor RECORDAK
Microfilms in any width were ever made on
nitrate base.
Digitization—use of a scanner to convert
documents (on paper or microforms) to
digitally coded electronic images suitable
for electronic storage.
Digital—the use of binary code to record
information. “Information” can be text in a binary
code (e.g., ASCII), images in bitmapped form,
or sound in a sampled digital form or video.
Non-curl backing layer—a layer, usually made
of gelatin, applied to the side of the film base
opposite to that of the emulsion layer, for the
purpose of preventing curl.
NOTE:Information is recorded digitally for
accuracy in storage and transmission.
Some types of data manipulation are
easier in digital form.
NOTE:It is comparable to the emulsion layer
in thickness and is not removed in
processing. (Antihalation or other
layers removed in processing are
excluded from this definition.)
Scanning—1.) In electronic imaging, scanning is
the operation which precedes digitization, where
the surface of a document is divided into pixels
and analog values are collected representing the
optical density (brightness and possibly color)
of each pixel.
Polyester film—a photographic film having a
polyester base. This type of base manufactured
by Eastman Kodak Company is called Estar Base.
It is exceptionally tough and strong and has
excellent dimensional stability. Microfilm
emulsions on Estar Base are currently supplied
for many purposes. Kodak currently manufactures
only microfilms on Estar Base.
2.) In electronic imaging, OCR scanning is the
conversion of marks that represent symbols into
symbols for use in a data processing system.
The paper or microfilm with the human-readable
marks is first scanned as an image, then is
analyzed to recognize the intended symbol.
The result is the set of symbolic information,
in a machine-readable code such as ASCII
(also known as handprint character recognition,
intelligent character recognition, and optical
character recognition).
Safety photographic film—photographic film
which passes the ignition time test and burning
time test as specified in ANSI and ISO Standards.
Safety poly(ethylene terephthalate) base—
a polyester film base for recording materials
composed mainly of a polymer of ethylene
glycol and terephthalic acid. All safety films
(both acetate and polyester) manufactured
by Eastman Kodak Company meet these
requirements. This means that they are
difficult to ignite and are slow burning.
3.) In micrographics, scanning is the movement of
an image on a reader screen in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of roll-film transport.
4.) Scanning is the systematic examination of
data (ISO).
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Scanner—a device that electro-optically converts
a document into a series of pixels by detecting
and measuring the intensity of light reflected or
transmitted. When initially captured, each pixel is
a level of brightness (gray or color), initially an
analog quantity, but potentially digitized.
Extended-term storage conditions—storage
conditions suitable for the preservation of
recorded information on the majority of freshly
processed photographic films for 500 years.
Medium-term storage conditions—storage
conditions suitable for the preservation of
recorded information for a minimum of 10 years.
NOTE:For many applications, total information
about each pixel is not needed and would
represent a burdensome amount of output
from the scanner. Therefore, most
Methylene blue—a chemical dye formed
during the testing of permanence of processed
microimages using the methylene-blue
method. Also called residual thiosulfate ion
and silver densitometric method.
scanners digitize the value of each pixel
and reduce the amount of data output to
only that which is required. For example,
output might be limited to one bit per pixel
for “black-and-white” scanning.
Storage Hazards and Protection
There are a number of hazards to the satisfactory
storage of photographic film that apply to records
intended for medium-term, long-term, or
extended-term storage. In fact, it is not always
possible to predict the desired life of records at the
time they are made.
Scanner threshold—the brightness level above
which a pixel is considered pure white and
below which the pixel is considered pure black
(sometimes set manually [lighter/darker
setting], or set automatically based on the
average brightness of the document).
While films of medium-term, long-term, or
extended-term interest are subject to the same
hazards, the storage protection provided for
them will differ in degree because of a number
of factors. These include the cost of providing
storage facilities, desired record life, frequency
of record use, value of the records, etc. See
ANSI/PIMA IT9.11-19935 and ANSI IT9.2-1991.6
Record Classification
On the basis of required retention, photographic
records can be classified broadly as requiring
medium-term storage and long-term storage.
Archival medium—recording material that can
be expected to retain information forever, so
that such information can be retrieved without
significant loss when properly stored. However,
there is no such material and it is not a term to be
used in American National Standard material or
system specifications.
Fire Protection
All Kodak Microfilms are slow-burning films as
defined by the American National Standards
Institute, Inc.3 Even though photographic records
will burn considerably slower than paper, the
same precautions against damage by fire
should be taken for them as for paper records
of comparable value.
Life expectancy (LE)—the length of time that
information is predicted to be retrievable in a
system at 21°C and 50% RH.
LE designation—the rating for the “life
expectancy” of recording materials and
associated retrieval systems.
Depending on the importance of the records,
fire protection provided can vary from the full
protection described on the following pages for
valuable records to that provided by ordinary
office storage.
NOTE:The number following the LE symbol is a
prediction of the minimum life expectancy,
in years, for which information can be
retrieved without significant loss when
stored at 21°C and 50% RH.
For example, LE-100 indicates that
information can be retrieved for at least
100 years of storage. Silver-gelatin films
have an LE of 500; thermally processed
silver (TPS) have an LE of 100 years.
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moisture, which will expand under heat and, under
some conditions, might generate slight pressure.
However, such intense heat would be required on
the outside of the fire-resistant cabinet that the
cabinet would be seriously damaged from the fire
before appreciable pressure developed.
Storage Vaults
The highest degree of protection for a large
number of records is afforded by a fireproof
storage vault or record room. It should be located
and constructed in accordance with the local
building code, Fire Underwriters’ Regulations, and
the requirements of the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA)7 for a valuable record
room, except that an approved, controlled,
air-conditioning unit should be installed. While
NFPA discourages air conditioning such an
installation, the fire hazard introduced by
openings for air-conditioning ducts can be
overcome by the use of automatic, fire-control
dampers approved by Underwriters’ Laboratories,
Inc. These can be installed in the ducts in
accordance with recommendations of NFPA.8
Sufficient insulation should be provided in the
vault to permit satisfactory temperature control at
all seasons of the year and to prevent moisture
condensation from forming on the walls.
Effects of High Temperatures
In addition to complete loss by fire, damage to film
records can also occur if they are exposed to very
high temperatures. Excessive heat causes film to
buckle because of shrinkage at the edges. When
severe, this distortion affects the ease with which
the information can be taken from microfilms,
either by projection (for reading) or by printing
onto another film.
Silver-gelatin films that have been conditioned at
a relative humidity of 50% or lower will withstand
121°C (250°F) for 24 hours without significant
loss in readability or printability. At 149°C (300°F),
severe distortion can occur in a few hours.
Films that have been conditioned at a relative
humidity above 50% may show objectionable
distortion in somewhat shorter times or at lower
temperatures. Higher humidities, however, are
undesirable for other reasons, as explained later.
Cabinets and Safes
For smaller quantities of records, a fire-resistant
cabinet or safe of the type described by NFPA7
will provide considerable protection. Such a safe
should protect records against a severe fire for at
least four hours.
Thermally processed silver films will build
up background densities fairly rapidly at
temperatures of 93°C (200°F) and above.
At these temperatures, even a few hours will
produce significant loss in readability or
printability. At 149°C (300°F) or above, severe
distortion can occur in a few hours.
Many fire-resistant safes and cabinets use a type
of insulation that when heated releases moisture
and thus fills the interior of the safe with steam
during a fire. This can cause melting or stripping
of the film emulsion layer and loss of the image.
For protection, films stored in such a safe should
be placed in moisture-tight cans, as described
under “Humidity Control” in this publication.
Diazo films, while quite stable, contain dye images
that can fade and/or discolor as a result of high
temperatures. Kodak Diazo Microfilms can
withstand a week at 93°C (200°F) without image
loss. At 149°C (300°F) or above, severe distortion
can occur in a few hours.
It is preferable to use fire-resistant safes that are
available with an inner chamber sealed against
moisture. These are classified by Underwriters’
Laboratories, Inc., as Class 150 Record
Containers.9 Film damage caused by steam
is not a problem with these safes.
High temperature is the greatest enemy of
vesicular film. Although Kodak Thermal Print
Films can withstand 71°C (160°F) for several
hours, high temperatures can cause a complete
loss of images if care is not taken with regard to
temperature control.
The question is sometimes raised as to whether
microfilm stored in drawers or cabinets designed
to resist fire for several hours might, in case of a
fire, generate enough pressure to damage or
explode the cabinet. There is practically no
danger of an explosion from the storage of either
Estar Base or acetate base safety film under
these conditions. There are small amounts of
organic materials in acetate film base, as well as
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High Humidity
Water Protection
Storage in moist air, such as that frequently found
in basement rooms, and storage humidities above
50% should be avoided; relative humidities of
40% or less are recommended for minimizing the
possibility of growth of microscopic blemishes.
At humidities above 60%, there is the additional
danger of fungus growth.
Film records should be protected from possible
water damage, such as from leaks, fire-sprinkler
discharge, and flooding. If possible, storage
facilities should be located above basement
levels. Storage cabinets should be raised so that
the lowest shelf or drawer is at least 15.2 cm
(6 in.) off the floor and should be constructed so
that water cannot splash through ventilating
louvers onto the records. Drains provided should
have adequate capacity to keep water from a
sprinkler discharge from reaching a depth of
7.6 cm (3 in.).
If the record-storage area should become flooded,
prompt steps should be taken to reclaim any
immersed records. Allowing microfilm records
to dry, even partially, will cause the layers to
stick together. If there are no local facilities for
rewashing and drying the films immediately,
promptly place the films in a water-filled container
and send them to a laboratory where they can be
washed and dried properly.10
Effects of High and Low
Relative Humidities
The choice of humidity level for storage depends
on the type of photographic film and the humidity
of the work area. In order to minimize subsequent
moisture conditioning in storage, the humidity of
the work area should not be markedly different
from that of the storage area. Very large humidity
differences may lead to some physical distortion.
The best relative humidity for storage is the
lowest that can be achieved practically and
controlled reliably, within the limits specified
in ANSI/PIMA IT9.11-1998 and ISO 189115 or
their latest revisions.
These curves show the relationship between relative
humidity and the moisture content of a typical emulsion,
triacetate film base, Estar Base, and a complete film at
equilibrium of various relative humidities at 21°C (70°F).
Low Humidity
At low humidities, problems of brittleness or
static might arise if the films are to be handled
frequently. However, in the case of inactive
films (regardless of their intended permanence),
the increased protection that low humidity gives
against microscopic blemishes might be
desirable. The recommended humidity is
30% for silver-gelatin polyester-base film and
15% for silver-gelatin acetate-base film and all
other silver and non-silver films.5
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Very low humidities have, in the past, caused film
to be brittle. However, film of current manufacture
has not been found to exhibit brittleness or
breaking tendencies under normal handling,
even at relative humidities as low as 15%. Old film
that is found to be brittle at low humidity should
be reconditioned to a higher humidity before
use. One day’s storage is usually sufficient for
conditioning a dry 16 mm roll halfway to a higher
ambient relative humidity; to bring it to full
Molecular Sieves
Molecular sieves are capable of absorbing most
of the potential film degradation agents such as
moisture, oxidants, solvents, and others when
kept in close proximity with the films under
confined storage.24 Therefore, Eastman Kodak
Company recommends the use of molecular
sieves with triacetate and polyester-based films to
reduce the physical aging of films and increase
the longevity of black-and-white images under
confined storage. It also prevents ferrotyping
(mold/fungal growth on films), as it reduces the
moisture content of film.
equilibrium requires about a week. In each case,
both sides of the roll should be exposed to the air.
Tests have shown that molecular sieves prevent
vinegar syndrome associated with acetate-based
films and micro-blemishes, and arrests the
oxidation of silver images due to peroxides and
ozone in the atmosphere. Using molecular sieves
slows the rate of these degradation reactions
under confined storage and thus extends the
keeping and longevity of older film collections.
A single molecular sieve packet inserted into the
existing flip-top boxes containing microfilm will
last for five to seven years, under recommended
storage conditions. Microfilm should be inspected
periodically to offer an opportunity to replace
the molecular sieves.
Rate of conditioning a typical safety film from 20% to 50%
relative humidity at 21°C (70°F).
The sieves must be replaced at some interval,
depending on storage conditions. The use of
molecular sieves is cited by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) as another procedure
to reduce redox blemishes caused by high
humidity conditions and oxidants in the air. For
more information or to obtain molecular sieves
(listed below), call Multisorb at 1-800-445-9890.
Low humidity affects the curl of silver-gelatin film,
causing a slight contraction of the emulsion layer
and resulting in a slight curl toward that side.
This is generally believed to be an advantage
because the concave emulsion surface is better
protected against abrasion. However, excessive
curl may cause difficulty in focusing images in
some microfilm readers. This can be avoided
by conditioning the film to a relative humidity of
30-50% before use. The curl of diazo, TPS, and
vesicular films is virtually unaffected by humidity.
Molecular Sieves
Part No.
41 ag 43
41 ag 47
41 ag 51
Film
Format
3.5 grams
7.0 grams
Content
400
16 mm
35 mm
Film handled at very low humidities may also
develop a static charge as it passes through a
reader or rewinder. This static charge will attract
dust particles that can damage the emulsion by
chemical action or physical abrasion. Therefore,
it is important that any film handling area be kept
clean. If film is kept in a dry storage area, it may
be necessary to use the film in an office area of
higher humidity to minimize static problems.
However, as previously noted, large humidity
differences may lead to conditioning problems.
200
105 mm 12.5 grams
125
With or without molecular sieves, it is very
important to follow current industry recommended
practices for film storage, such as keeping film
under proper temperature and relative humidity
conditions. However, placing recommended
amounts of molecular sieves inside flip-top
boxes will extend the life of the films significantly.
This adds additional protection by slowing the
deterioration process.
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Moisture-Tight Containers
Humidity Control
If humidity control of the storage area is not
possible, the storage of film in moisture-tight
containers is required to maintain the film’s
humidity limits. The film must be conditioned to
the required humidity before being sealed in the
container. This requires the temporary use of an
air-conditioned cabinet or room, or an electrical
dehumidifier. Smaller quantities of film can be
conditioned for two or three weeks in a desiccator
containing activated silica gel, and then removed
and quickly sealed.
Control of relative humidity is required for
preservation of permanent records.
Air Conditioning
Properly controlled air conditioning of the storage
area is definitely recommended for the optimum
long-term preservation of permanent records.
The air should be filtered to remove dust,
cleansed of gaseous contaminants, if present,
and controlled to the desired relative humidity and
temperature. Slightly positive air pressure should
be maintained within the storage room or vault.
Film should be conditioned to this environment
and then placed in containers.
Only properly sealed metal or glass containers
are considered moisture- and gas-proof. They
are preferred when long-term air conditioning is
not practical, when gaseous impurities may
regularly be present, or when low-temperature
storage is used.
Where air conditioning is not available and high
humidities are likely to be present, the humidity
of the storage area can be lowered by electrical
refrigeration-type dehumidifiers. These are readily
available and inexpensive. The storage space
should first be vapor-sealed by covering the walls
with asphalt or aluminum paint or, better yet,
paper-laminated aluminum foil or other water-
vapor barriers. Painting the storage area is
suggested, but follow the painting precautions.
A humidistat set at the desired level of humidity
should be used to control the dehumidifier. The
humidity level should be checked frequently with a
reliable hygrometer, such as a sling psychrometer.
For added protection against short-term moisture
effects, such as dehumidifier failure, tape the
containers as described in the following section,
“Moisture-Tight Containers.”
Plastic boxes, such as Kodak Microfilm Plastic
Storage Cartons (CAT No. 108-6867—16 mm;
CAT No. 841-8741—35 mm), can be used as
protective containers in controlled areas. They
provide satisfactory protection against short-term
problems of moisture or gaseous impurities,
such as might occur with floods, dehumidifier
failures, smoke from a fire, or moisture released
by insulation (upon exposure to heat) in certain
fire-resistant safes and cabinets.
With both metal and plastic containers, all
materials (including any gaskets and protective
paints or lacquers) must be non-corroding and
free of peroxides, reactive fumes, and exudations
during storage. Closed containers with friction-
type or threaded twist-on lids may require no other
seal, but should be tested for imperviousness.
Dehumidifiers using desiccants should be used
with caution. They may create a danger of fine
dust particles getting on the film and causing
abrasion when the film is used. Also, when some
chemical-desiccant particles are trapped in rolls
of microfilm, they may form bleached spots.
Therefore, inert desiccates should be used, and
it is essential that the system be designed so
that particulate material cannot enter the storage
area. The use of molecular sieve packets is
recommended, as this is an efficient desiccant.
Chemically pure silica gel may also be used as
a desiccant, provided that filtration is used to
remove particle layers larger than 0.3 micron.
See ANSI/PIMA IT9.11-1998 and ISO 18911-
19985 or their latest revisions.
If the container is in an area having the prescribed
humidity and known to be free of harmful gases,
taping is not required. If these conditions are not
met, taping will provide satisfactory protection.
Plastic boxes or cans are preferable, as they
provide more insulation in case of fire.
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Humidification
Microscopic Blemishes
Humidification is not necessary or desirable
unless the prevailing relative humidity is under
15%—under 30% for polyester-base films—for
long periods of time and unless the film is used
frequently and physical troubles are encountered.
Neither water trays nor saturated chemical
solutions should be used for humidification of
storage cabinets because of the more serious
danger of overhumidification. Even humidification
controlled by instrumentation is risky unless
“fail-safe” devices are installed.
Some processed silver-gelatin microfilms in
storage for two to twenty years have developed
microscopically small colored spots or blemishes.
The fogged leader at the outside of the roll is most
frequently affected by the blemishes, which are
generally red or yellow in color and smaller in size
than the image characters (e.g., a typewritten
letter reduced 20X) on the microfilm. On occasion,
these spots progress further into the roll and
appear in image areas. A more detailed
description of the blemishes and of the techniques
used in inspecting microfilm is given in National
Bureau of Standards Handbook 96.11
Fungus Growth
Fungus spores are found in the air everywhere.
They germinate and grow under favorable
The spots are caused by local oxidation of image
silver, resulting in the formation of minute deposits
of yellow- or red-colored colloidal silver.12,13
Possible oxidizing agents entering from outside
the roll of microfilm are aerial oxygen, whose
action on the film is strongly accelerated by
moisture, and atmospheric contaminants such
as peroxides, ozone, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and nitrogen oxides, which all occur in
industrial atmospheres.
conditions. When silver-gelatin films are stored for
any length of time in an atmosphere having a
relative humidity of above 60%, fungus (often
called mold or mildew) has a tendency to grow on
the emulsion surface, the back of the film, or on
the film reel. The higher the relative humidity, the
greater the chance of fungus attack and the more
abundant its growth. The only real protection
against fungus growth is to make certain that
conditions are unfavorable for its growth.
Assuming that your microfilm was processed to
established quality control standards, microscopic
blemishes (redox) may occur due to the oxidation
of the metallic silver image by the presence of
oxidants in the storage area: peroxides, ozone,
nitrogen oxides, oil-based paint fumes, organic
solvents, floor-cleaning agents, cardboard
cartons, excessive temperature and humidity,
or a variety of other materials that generate
peroxides which attack silver microfilms.
If fungus growth progresses far enough, it can
cause serious and permanent damage to film.
This takes the form of distortion of the emulsion
and eventually causes chemical breakdown so
that the gelatin becomes sticky and readily soluble
in water. Water or water solutions should not be
used for the removal of fungus growth because
either may lead to disintegration of the image.
Clean affected film by wiping it with a soft plush
or cotton pad moistened with an approved
film-cleaning liquid, such as isopropyl alcohol.
This procedure is described in detail in a separate
Kodak Pamphlet.10
The use of low concentrations of potassium
iodide in the fixing bath (0.2 g/L) has been
recommended and has been found to provide
a good degree of protection against these
blemishes.13 Kodak Microfilm and Prostar Fix
Solutions contain this stability-enhancing iodide.
Fungus can grow on most surfaces, including
diazo and vesicular films; however, these films are
more resistant to fungus growth than silver-gelatin
films. If necessary, clean these film types by
wiping with a soft, plush or cotton pad, moistened
with water. Do not use solvents on diazo,
Once the deterioration of the microfilm occurs,
it cannot be reversed. Silver film duplication,
Kodak Brown Toner, and the use of molecular
sieves can be used to stabilize the reaction.
vesicular, or thermally processed silver films.
The Kodak Disaster Recovery Laboratory
offers no charge evaluation of suspect microfilm
and can be reached at 1-800-EKC-TEST
(1-800-352-8378) or 1-585-253-3907.
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The conditions under which microfilm is stored
have been found to play an important role in
the development of microscopic blemishes.
Storage in cool, dry air that is free of oxidizing
gases or vapors is an effective means for
arresting their formation and growth. Storage
in sealed, metal cans is a sound preventive
measure, if this is practical and consistent with
the humidity requirements.
Chemical Contamination
Air contaminants may add an oxidizing or
reducing effect to the atmosphere. This in turn
may cause deterioration of the film base and a
gradual fading of the photographic image, as
well as the formation of the microscopic blemishes
mentioned above. Typical contaminants are
paint fumes, peroxides, nitrogen oxides,
hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, and similar
gases. If an area is to be painted, any films stored
there should be removed beforehand and should
not be returned to the area for three months.
The removal of contaminating gases from the
air requires special consideration.5,14,15,16,17
Additional protection can be obtained by adding
molecular sieves to the storage containers
or toning the film with toners such as Kodak
Brown Toner (CAT No. 146-4452—8 oz.;
CAT No. 140-0928—1 gal.). For information
about the use of brown toner as a treatment
to extend the life of microfilm, order Kodak
Publication A-1671.26
Contaminants can come from illuminating gas,
coal gas, automobile exhaust, and certain
chemical plants. They are present in harmful
concentrations in most industrial and urban areas.
Other contamination can come from ozone and
ammonia produced by certain photocopying
devices. For this reason, a long-term storage vault
should be located as far as possible from such
areas. When a contaminated atmosphere cannot
be avoided, steps should be taken either to
eliminate the fumes by air conditioning the
storage area or to protect the film from contact
with the atmosphere by sealing it in containers.
Toning
The life expectancy of your microfilm, processed
to established quality control standards and stored
under ideal environmental conditions, can be
many years. However, we do not have control of
environmental surroundings at all times.
Therefore, you should consider taking the extra
precaution of toning your films against oxidative
attack. Toning can be accomplished by use of
sulfide toning agents such as Kodak Brown Toner.
Other types of toners, such as selenium or gold,
are also accepted but not commonly used.
ANSI/PIMA IT 9.1-1998 (ISO 18901) now
recognizes that films toned with toners like
this can still be considered to meet the standards
for records of permanent or long-term value.
Brown toning is a service offered by the
In addition to atmospheric contaminants, care
should be taken about other materials kept or
used in the storage area. It has already been
mentioned that nitrate-base films should never be
used for permanent-record films. Furthermore,
such films should never be stored with safety-film
records (either in the same room or in rooms
connected by ventilating ducts in the same
building) because the gases given off by
decomposing nitrate film will damage or destroy
images on safety-film records.
Kodak Disaster Recovery Laboratory.
The lab can be reached at 1-800-EKC-TEST
(1-800-352-8378) or 1-585-253-3907.
Films not of the silver-gelatin type (e.g., diazo and
vesicular) should not be wound on the same rolls,
stored in the same containers, or be in physical
contact with silver-gelatin films. In addition, some
older vesicular films have been known to give off
acidic fumes and require a separate storage
housing with a separate circulating air system.4
Avoid using rubber bands around rolls of film,
since residual sulfur from rubber vulcanization
promotes the growth of microscopic blemishes.
Adhesive tapes, tape splices, bleached papers,
and printing inks also cause undesirable effects.
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Adhesive
Composition of Enclosure Materials
Some photographic images can be damaged
by adhesives incorporating impurities such as
sulfur, iron, copper, or other ingredients that
might react with image silver or gelatin. Pressure-
sensitive adhesives and ether-linked products
should be avoided.
Paper
Paper should be made from rag, bleached sulfite
or bleached kraft pulp with an alpha-cellulose
content greater than 87%. It should be free from
highly lignified fibres, such as ground wood, as
determined by the phloroglucinol spot test.
Rubber-based products such as rubber cement
should not be used. Not only might they contain
harmful solvents or plasticizers, but they might be
compounded with photographically damaging
sulfur, usually as a vulcanizer, accelerator, or
stabilizer. Even some “low-desensitizing” or
“sulfur-free” rubbers contain sulfur.
For paper in direct contact with black-and-white
photographic material, the pH should be between
7.5 and 9.5. The pH should be close to 7.0 when
in direct contact with color or diazo material. There
should be an alkali reserve of at least 2% (m/m).
The alkali reserve should be obtained by the
incorporation of an alkaline earth carbonate.
Neutral or alkaline-sizing chemicals should be
employed and the material should be essentially
free from particles of metal. Glassine envelopes
should not be used.
Photographic-quality gelatin and many polyvinyl
acetate and cellulose ester adhesives are
suitable for use with paper enclosures. Heat
sealing and mechanical sealing should be used
when possible.
Plastic
Printing Inks
Suitable plastic enclosure materials are
Printing inks are known to cause microscopic
spots in fine-grain silver microfilm; consequently,
there should be no printed matter on the inside of
the filing enclosure. The ink used for imprinting
the outside of filing enclosures should not bleed,
spread, or transfer, and it should not be a source
of products that attack the photograph or the
enclosure itself.
photographic film support materials such as
uncoated polyester (polyethylene terephthalate)
polypropylene and polyethylene. Chlorinated
or nitrated sheeting should not be used and
cellulose nitrate, in particular, should be avoided.
Metal
Metal enclosures should be noncorrosive
materials such as anodized aluminum or stainless
steel. The use of steel is permissible, provided
that the surface is well protected by lacquer,
enamel, tinning, plating, or some other corrosion-
resistant finish. Lacquer, which might give off
reactive fumes, peroxides, or exudations during
storage should not be used.
For additional specifications, see ANSI/PIMA
IT9.11-19985 (ISO 18911) and ANSI/PIMA
IT9.2-19916 (ISO 18903).
Theft Protection
Safes provide good protection against the theft of
valuable records. Where such records are large in
number, vaults of burglar-proof construction may
be required. Theft of important records involves
double peril—that of classified films falling into
unauthorized hands and the complete loss of
valuable information. Protection against the latter
can, of course, be provided by storing duplicate
records in another location.
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To make sure that there is enough time for the
fixing reaction to be completed, specific
Processing for Permanence
recommendations for each type of film should
be followed. Undeveloped silver halides are
dissolved by the fixer as complex ions of silver
and thiosulfate. As the silver content of the fixer
increases with processing, the silver-thiosulfate
complex becomes increasingly difficult to wash
from the film. This can be avoided by frequent
replacement or proper replenishment of the fixing
bath or by in-line recirculating electrolytic recovery
of silver from the fixer.
Silver-Gelatin Films
Processing is one of the most important
factors affecting the potential permanence of
photographic records. The removal of residual
processing chemicals, the exclusion of dirt
contamination, and uniform drying are factors
normally controlled by proper processing.
Processed film, for long-term storage or
permanent records, must meet the requirements
of ANSI/PIMA IT9.1-1992 (R1996) or ISO 18901.2
The ability to meet most of these requirements is
controlled in film manufacture, but films must be
fixed and washed adequately, whether given
conventional or full-reversal processing, to meet
residual thiosulfate requirements. Films
processed without fixation, such as in halide-
reversal processes and certain reversal
processes with only redevelopment, may give a
“visible, usable image,” but do not come under the
scope of the long-term storage standards.
Recovery of silver from fixer is advisable for
reasons of economics, conservation and ecology.
There are three principal methods of silver
recovery:18 metallic replacement, electrolytic
and sulfide precipitation. For additional
information, refer to Kodak Publication J-212.23
Washing
Adequate washing is essential to the permanence
of silver-gelatin microfilm. After all undeveloped
silver halide is converted, the emulsion is still
saturated with fixing bath and some dissolved
silver compounds. If these are not removed by
washing, they will slowly decompose and attack
the image, causing discoloration and fading.
The effect is accelerated greatly by high humidity
and temperature. The smaller the grain size of
the image, the greater this reaction is. Microfilms,
being very fine grained, are very sensitive to
this effect.
If fixing and washing are inadequate, thiosulfates
or silver salts, or both, will be retained by the film.
These can break down, especially under poor
storage conditions, to produce yellow stain in
clear areas and fading in areas containing
image silver.
Fixing Baths
In the fixing step, undeveloped silver-halide
crystals in the emulsion are converted to soluble
silver compounds which can be washed away with
water. The chemicals most commonly used for
fixing are sodium or ammonium thiosulfate
(commonly called “hypo”). The fixing bath may
also contain other chemicals to maintain a
desirable pH, provide hardening, stabilize the
solution, protect the image from microscopic
blemishes, etc.
For good washing, a rapid flow of fresh water
should be used. The water should be filtered to
remove dirt particles. To improve washing,
countercurrent and spray systems are frequently
used in processing-machine construction.
Washing efficiency decreases rapidly with
decreased temperature and is very low
at temperatures below 16°C (60°F). High
wash-water temperatures produce the most
efficient washing, but emulsion reticulation can
result if the wash-water temperature is too high
and not kept close to that of the other processing
solutions. In some cases, extremely soft water
can also cause reticulation. In the case of
contained chemical kits such as the Kodak
Miniprocessor, the manufacturer's recommended
film processing capacity should not be exceeded.
For maximum washing efficiency, a non-hardening
fixer followed by a non-oxidizing washing aid,
such as Microfilm Clearing Bath and Replenisher
should be used. (Call Solutek at 1-617-445-5335
to order CAT No. 414-24). Hypo eliminators
containing oxidizing agents, such as peroxide,
should be avoided. Oxidizing agents may promote
image deterioration.
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Residual Hypo Test
Squeegees
The accepted criterion for adequate washing is
the methylene blue method described in ANSI/
PIMA IT9.17-1998.19 IT9.17-1998 also describes
the silver densitometric method, which has been
suggested by the Association for Information and
Image Management (AIIM) as a simpler and less
expensive alternative. If the silver densitometric
density difference is 0.02 or less, AIIM considers
that the methylene blue requirements for
extended-term storage record films have been
met. In both methods, a clear area of the film is
tested and residual hypo tests may be run up to
two weeks after processing. A simpler, but less
sensitive, method is the use of the Kodak Hypo
Test Kit (CAT No. 196-5847). This test gives an
indication of residual hypo, but it should not be
used as a measurement for meeting the
It is important to use an adequate squeegee
where the film leaves the water wash and enters
the drying section. Otherwise, residual water
droplets will dry and form visible surface defects
and, in some cases, cause physical sticking of the
film laps. In wound-up rolls, these spots may
provide places where microscopic blemishes can
form. Inspect squeegees regularly (particularly
blade and roller types) to make sure that they do
not cause film scratches.
Drying
Drying should be uniform. The drying air should
be filtered so that airborne particles of dirt or
potentially harmful chemical dusts, often present
in processing laboratories, will not become
imbedded in the emulsion while it is tacky.
requirements of the ANSI specification.
In machine processing, the recommendations of
both the equipment and film manufacturer for
operating conditions and processing chemicals
should be followed.
NOTE:For satisfactory residual hypo levels in
films, both fixing and washing must be
acceptable—inadequacies in one cannot
be compensated by the other.
In other modes of processing, the following factors
are involved.
Residual Silver Compound Test
ANSI/PIMA IT 9.17-199819 and ISO 18917-1999
contain a test designed to indicate residual silver
salts in the film. Such salts are an important cause
of image layer degradation in aged-processed
photographic films.
Washing Aids
Using a washing aid, such as Kodak Hypo
Clearing Agent (CAT No. 146-4254—5 gal.) or
Kodak Microfilm Clearing Bath and Replenisher,
greatly increases both the rate and thoroughness
of hypo removal during the washing step.
Protective Coatings
After fixing, the film is first rinsed to remove the
major portion of hypo; next, the film is treated in a
Kodak Microfilm Clearing Bath and Replenisher;
then it is given a final wash.
It should be recognized that while lacquers and
other coatings have advantages for working prints
receiving hard use, they are not within the scope
of the ANSI long-term storage specifications.
NOTE:The use of hypo eliminators, such as
Kodak Hypo Eliminator HE-1, is not
recommended for microfilm because
some hypo eliminators contain oxidizing
agents that can contribute to the
formation of emulsion blisters and
microscopic blemishes.
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Processing of Other Film Types Special Storage and Hazards
Thermally Processed Silver (TPS)
Underground Storage
This film should be processed in accordance
with the manufacturers’ recommendations for
optimum image stability. ANSI/PIMA IT9.19-1994
and ISO-18919-199924 give specifications for
stability of TPS films.
Most large industrial organizations and
government agencies have developed methods
for safeguarding vital records in the event of a war
or a natural catastrophe. Many keep their vital
records in underground repositories located many
miles from large metropolitan areas. When
microfilm is kept underground in caves, mines,
tunnels, subbasements, or similar locations,
special care should be taken to make certain that
there is adequate control of the relative humidity.
Diazo Films
The proper processing of diazo films can also
affect keeping qualities. In the diazo process,
the film should be processed to completion for
maximum storage stability. ANSI/PIMA IT9.5-
19924 and ISO 18905-1999 give specific details
for methods and measurements for proper
development for image stability.
Film should not be stored where the relative
humidity exceeds the limits recommended for
storage. See Table 1 of ANSI/PIMA IT9.11-1998
or ISO 18911-1999.5 If humidity cannot be
controlled satisfactorily, film must be dried (as
described under “Air Conditioning”), then placed
in a moisture-proof container. The film must also
be protected, as in other types of storage, against
airborne dirt or chemical contamination.
Also, as with conventional silver films, if
processing equipment utilizes squeegees and
dryer chambers, regular inspections should be
made to make sure that the process is scratch-
free and free from airborne dirt and chemicals.
In underground situations, proper film-storage
conditions can often be achieved by simply
heating the cool, moist air that is present.
For example, conditions in a typical mine may be
10°C (50°F) and 85% relative humidity; by heating
the storage area to 21°C (70°F), the relative
humidity is reduced to 40%. Where it is not
practical to lower the relative humidity adequately
by this means, supplementary dehumidification
may be required.
Vesicular Films
The only variables in processing thermal or
vesicular films are the processing temperature
and time. Insufficient processing can increase
the possibility of fading in the heat of the reader
and potentially shorten keeping life. Processing
within manufacturers’ recommendations should
maximize keeping qualities. In addition to
monitoring process temperature and time,
regular checks should be made to make
sure that scratch-free film is being produced.
ANSI/PIMA IT9.12-1995 and ISO 18912-1999,21
“Specifications for Stability of Processed Vesicular
Film,” discuss the criteria for proper development.
Effects of Nuclear Explosions
The protection of vital microfilm records against
the effects of nuclear explosions is mostly a
matter of providing sufficient blast and fire
protection. Processed microfilm is essentially
unaffected by radiation, even of the intensity
encountered in the vicinity of a nuclear explosion.
Best protection from blast and fire is afforded
by removing security files from potential target
areas. Storage in underground vaults, with
duplicate copies in different locations, provides
the greatest security.
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Time-Capsule Storage
Interfiling
Only silver-gelatin films conforming to ANSI/PIMA
IT9.1-19982 or ISO 18901-1999 should be used
for time capsules or sealed in cornerstones of
buildings. Film intended for this kind of storage
should be conditioned to a low relative humidity
(20-30% is recommended for acetate-base films)
in a conditioning room or chamber. During
conditioning, air should be circulated against
both roll surfaces. Conditioning times should be at
least two weeks for 16 mm film and four weeks for
35 mm film. This conforms to ANSI/PIMA IT9.11-
1998 and ISO 18911-1999.5
Microfilm may be subject to interactions when
stored with films of different generic types
(e.g., diazo and silver-gelatin). Do not wind
different generic film types on the same roll or
store them in the same container. Diazo and
silver-gelatin microfilms should be stored
separately before and after processing.
Diazonium salt gases emitted from Diazo
microfilm (pre- and post-process) can be
detrimental to silver-gelatin microfilm.
Continual handling of film, even under favorable
conditions, causes some wear, but wear can be
accelerated greatly by certain factors which can
be controlled. Scratching occurs when film is dirty
or equipment is poorly maintained or wrongly
used. “Cinching” causes scratches and occurs
when film is made to slide layer on layer
(e.g., when the end of a loose roll of film is pulled).
Tearing and fingerprinting occur when equipment
and handling methods are not suitable.
During conditioning, the film should be in the form
intended for final storage (wound on itself or a
glass rod, not on a conventional core or reel)
because the possibility of rapid moisture change
makes it inadvisable to rewind the film after
conditioning. The capsule should be loaded in the
conditioning chamber, if possible; if not, the film
should be transferred immediately to the capsule
and sealed tightly.
Remove dirt from film by wiping with a lintless
fabric pad moistened with film cleaner or its
equivalent. Carry out cleaning operations in an
atmosphere of about 50% relative humidity to
minimize the possibility that the film will become
electrostatically charged and attract dust particles.
The capsule should be a stainless steel cylinder
gasketed cover. When there is more than one roll
of film, it is a good idea to separate rolls with
stainless steel disks of the same inside diameter
as that of the capsule. Cores, reels, or wrapping of
any kind should not be included; only the film itself
should be put into the capsule.
Another proven method for removing foreign
matter from film is the use of Particle Transfer
Roller (PTR) technology. These rollers are a
polyurethane material whose tackiness and
cushiness pick up dust, hair, and other unwanted
material from a continuous moving film surface.
These rollers can be mounted in-line with most
film operations. They can be cleaned easily with
warm water and mild soap. For more information
about Particle Transfer Roller technology call
FPC, Inc., (an Eastman Kodak Company)
at 1-323-468-5774 or contact your local
Handling and Filing
Film Records
Well-planned filing systems and proper handling
of film records are important in the storage of
records. The custodian should set up safeguards
against loss or misplacement of valuable records
and also make sure that the methods of filing and
handling do not add unnecessary wear to the
records. When films must be used, duplicates
should be made and originals retained in storage.
Kodak Representative.
Cleanliness of the work space is essential to
success in these operations. Static discharge
devices are available for use when handling film
which has been in dry storage. Alternatively, film
can be conditioned to a higher relative humidity
before cleaning and then reconditioned to the
original low relative humidity. Other suggestions
for improving handling operations can be found in
Eastman Professional Motion Picture Films20 and
The Book of Film Care.22
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Sometimes film inspection is considered too
laborious and costly and is neglected for many
years—occasionally with unfortunate results.
If it is not always possible to open every film
can or rewind every roll at the recommended
frequency, select a few rolls at random from
the film collection each month for examination.
This approach provides some protection at a
relatively small cost. If there is any indication
that film records are not keeping properly,
storage conditions should be improved and other
protective treatments given the film. Make copies
of films that show signs of deterioration because
deterioration, once initiated, is an irreversible
process that may be restrained, but not
Inspection
The potential life of photographic records depends
largely on atmospheric conditions—temperature,
humidity, cleanliness—and the manner in which
the film is used. If storage conditions are kept
within the limits suggested in Table 3, inspection
of an adequate number of properly selected lot
samples should be made at two-year intervals.12
While extended-term records should definitely be
kept under the recommended storage conditions,
film records of medium-term value may have
more leeway in terms of storage humidity and
temperature. Where humidity is not controlled
closely, film should be inspected more frequently
than at two-year intervals; the intervals between
inspection should not initially exceed six months
and then, if no deterioration is noted, can be
extended but should not exceed one year.
terminated, by improving storage conditions.
Therefore, extensive and frequent inspections
should be made.
ANSI/AIIM standards and technical reports are
available related to the inspection of silver gelatin
microforms. An example can be found in
American National Standard: “Imaging Materials–
Processed Silver-Gelatin Type–Black and White
Film–Specifications for Stability.”2
Table 1: Applicable Standards for Microfilm
*LE is for polyester-based
Thermally
Silver-Gelatin ProcessedSilver
(TPS)
Diazo
Vesicular
**LE is for acetate-based
Long Term
LE 500*
Long Term
LE 100*
Medium, Long
LE 100*
Medium, Long
LE 100*
LE 100**
“Safety Film Specifications”
IT9.6/
IT9.6/
IT9.6/
IT9.6/
ISO 18906
ISO 18906
ISO 18906
ISO 18906
“Specifications for Microfilms on
Polyester Base”
IT9.1/
ISO 18901
and
“... on Acetate Base”
“Methylene Blue Method ...”
IT9.17/
ISO 18917
“Specifications for Thermally
Processed Silver Microfilms”
IT9.19/
ISO 18919
“Specifications for Stability of
Diazo Films ...”
IT9.5/
ISO 18905
“Specifications for Stability of
Vesicular Films”
IT9.12/
ISO 18912
“Practice for Storage of
Photographic Film”
IT9.11/
ISO 18911
IT9.11/
ISO 18911
IT9.11/
ISO 18911
IT9.11/
ISO 18911
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Table 2: Storage Life of Microfilms
Anticipated Storage Life
Film/Type/Parameter
Medium Term
Extended Term
Long Term
(Minimum of 10 Years) (Minimum of 100 Years)
(Indefinitely)
Silver-Gelatin Films
Not above 0.030 grams Not above 0.014 grams
per square meter (1) per square meter (1)
(1), (2)
—
Residual Hypo
No more than perceptible tint by spot stain test.
Residual Silver Salts
All Films—
Storage Conditions
See Table 3
Temperature and
Relative Humidity
Air Conditioning
Not necessary
Essential—including slightly positive air pressure.
unless film records
are subjected to
frequent or sustained
high humidity (3)
Air Purification
Enclosures
Normal
Must be free from airborne gases, dirt particles,
and other contaminants.
Not necessary with
moisture control
If proper humidity control is provided, plastic or
metal, unsealed, can be used.
and/or air conditioning
If adequate humidity control is not available, only
metal or glass sealed containers are acceptable.
NOTES:
(1) Expressed as thiosulfate ion.
(2) Specific limits have not been set—the recommended washing should be satisfactory.
(3) Dehumidification may be necessary even though automatic air conditioning is not practical.
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Although the same general storage principles
apply to medium-term and long-term storage
records, much greater care must be taken to
obtain maximum protection for long-term storage
records; makeshift or temporary arrangements
should not be considered.
Summary of Requirements for
Storage and Preservation of
Records on Kodak Microfilm
Storage Facilities
In summary, Table 3 indicates the conditions that
are considered suitable for black-and-white silver-
gelatin, thermally processed silver, diazo, and
vesicular Kodak Microfilms.
The type of storage vault, safe, cabinet, or area
selected must be based on the value of the film
records and their intended storage life. In general,
one roll per container is recommended.
Containers should be stored in metal cabinets.
Cabinets should be spaced in the room so there
are no stagnant air pockets or localized areas
where temperature and humidity may reach
higher levels than the general condition. If
humidity is not controlled, sealed metal or glass
containers are required.
Table 3: Storage Temperature and Relative Humidity
Extended and Long Term
Medium Term
Temperature
(Max.)
Temperature
(Max.)
Film Type
Base
Relative
Humidity
Relative
Humidity
°C
°F
°C
°F
Silver-Gelatin
Cellulose ester 20–50%
2
5
7
35.6
41.0
44.6
20–60%
25
77
(Acetate)
20–40%
20–30%
Silver-Gelatin
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
30–40%
15–30%
21
21
69.8
69.8
20–60%
20–60%
20–60%
25
25
25
77
77
77
Thermally Processed Silver
Diazo
20–50%
20–50%
20–50%
-10
-3
2
14
26.6
35.6
Vesicular
Polyester
Polyester
Polyester
15–50%
15–50%
15–50%
20
20
20
70
70
70
20–60%
20–60%
20–60%
25
25
25
77
77
77
Electro-Photographic
Photo-Plastic
Color
Cellulose ester 20-30%
-10
-3
14
26.6
20–60%
20–60%
25
25
77
77
(Acetate)
20–40%
Color
Polyester
25–30%
2
35.6
20–60%
25
77
NOTE:If the storage temperature is sufficiently low or if the air where the film is to be handled is quite
moist, leave the film in its closed container until it warms up to approximate room temperature.
Otherwise, condensation of moisture will occur on the cold film surfaces.
D-31 June 2002
17
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17. HVAC Applications, ASHRAE Handbook, New York:
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, 1991.†
References and Bibliography
1. American National Standard: “Technical Report—
Glossary of Document Technologies,” ANSI/AIIM
TR2-1998.
18. Refrigeration, ASHRAE Handbook, New York:
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, 1994.†
2. American National Standard: “Imaging Materials—
Processed Silver-Gelatin Type Black and White
Film—Specifications for Stability,” ANSI/PIMAIT9.1-
1996 or ISO 18901.
19. “Recovering Silver from Photographic Materials,”
Eastman Kodak Company, Kodak Publication
No. J-10A.
3. American National Standard: “Imaging Materials—
Photographic Films - Specifications for Safety Film,”
ANSI IT9.6-1991 (R1996) or ISO 18906.
20. American National Standard: “Photography—
Determination of Residual Thiosulfate and Other
Related Chemicals in Processed Photographic
Materials—Methods Using Iodine-Amylose,
Methylene Blue and Silver Sulfide,” ANSI/PIMA
IT9.17-1993 or ISO 18918.
4. American National Standard: “Imaging Materials—
Ammonia-Processed Diazo Photographic Film—
Specifications for Stability,” ANSI/PIMAIT9.5-1996 or
ISO 18905.
21. “Eastman Professional Motion Picture Films,”
Eastman Kodak Company, Kodak Publication
No. H-1.
5. American National Standard: “Imaging Media—
Processed Safety Photographic Film—Storage,”
ANSI/PIMA IT9.11-1998 or ISO 18911.
22. American National Standard: “Imaging Material—
Processed Vesicular Photographic Film—
Specifications for Stability,” ANSI/PIMA IT9.12-1995
or ISO 18912.
6. American National Standard: “Imaging Media—
Photographic Processed Films, Plates, and Papers—
Filing Enclosures and Storage Containers,”
ANSI IT9.2-1991.
23. “The Book of Film Care,” Eastman Kodak Company,
7. American National Standard: “Protection of Records,”
ANSI/NFPA 232-1995.
Kodak Publication No. H-23.
24. “The Technology of Silver Recovery for Photographic
Processing Facilities,” Eastman Kodak Company,
Kodak Publication No. J-212.
8. American National Standard: “Installation of Air
Conditioning and Ventilating Systems,” ANSI/NFPA
90A-1996.
25. American National Standard: “Imaging Media (Film)—
Thermally Processed Silver Microfilm—Specifications
for Stability,” ANSI/NAPM IT9.19-1994 or ISO/DIS
14806-1996.
9. American National Standard: “Tests for Fire
Resistance of Record Protection Equipment,”
ANSI/UL 72-1990.
10. “Prevention and Removal of Fungus on Prints and
Films,” Eastman Kodak Company, Kodak Pamphlet
No. AE-22.
26. “The Effects and Prevention of the Vinegar
Syndrome,” A. Tulsi Ram, David F. Koperl,
Richard C. Sehlin, Stephanie Masaryk-Morris,
James L. Vincent, and Paige Miller, Journal of
Imaging Science and Technology, Vol. 38, No. 3,
249-261, May/June 1994.
11. “Inspection of Processed Photographic Record Films
for Aging Blemishes,” C. S. McCamy, National Bureau
of Standards Handbook 96, January 24, 1964.
12. “Microscopic Spots—A Progress Report,” D. G. Wiest
and R. W. Henn, National Micro-News, 70, 249257,
June 1964.
27. “Use of Kodak Brown Toner to Extend the Life of
Microfilm,” Eastman Kodak Company, Kodak
Publication No. A-1671.
†
13. “Microscopic Spots in Processed Microfilm—Their
Nature and Prevention,” D. G. Wiest and R. W. Henn,
Photographic Science and Engineering, 7 (5),
253-261 (1963).
Available from the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
1791 Tullie Circle NE, Atlanta, GA 30329-2305.
All ANSI Specifications are available from American
National Standards Institute, Inc., 11 W. 42nd St.,
14. “Microscopic Spots in Processed Microfilm: The Effect
of lodide,” R. W. Henn, D. G. Wiest, and B. D. Mack,
Photographic Science and Engineering, 9 (3),
167-173 (1965).
All AIIM Standards are available from Association for
Information and Image Management, 1100 Wayne
Avenue, Suite 1100, Silver Spring, MD 20910 or
15. Fundamentals, ASHRAE Handbook, New York:
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, 1993.†
Kodak Publications are available by calling
1-888-247-1234.
16. HVAC Systems and Equipment, ASHRAE Handbook,
New York: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 1992.†
18
D-31 June 2002
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EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY
Document Imaging
Rochester, New York 14650
Kodak, Eastman, Estar, and Prostar are
trademarks of Eastman Kodak Company.
KODAK Publication No. D-31
CAT No. 811-6386 6/2002
©Eastman Kodak Company, 2002
Printed in U.S.A.
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