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Kaniusas, Eugenijus, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Katake, Anup, Texas A&M University, USA
Kausel, Wilfried, University of Music, Vienna, Austria
Kavasoglu, Nese, Mugla University, Turkey
Rodriguez, Angel, Universidad Politecnica de Cataluna, Spain
Rothberg, Steve, Loughborough University, UK
Royo, Santiago, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain
Sadana, Ajit, University of Mississippi, USA
Ke, Cathy, Tyndall National Institute, Ireland
Sandacci, Serghei, Sensor Technology Ltd., UK
Sapozhnikova, Ksenia, D.I.Mendeleyev Institute for Metrology, Russia
Saxena, Vibha, Bhbha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
Schneider, John K., Ultra-Scan Corporation, USA
Seif, Selemani, Alabama A & M University, USA
Seifter, Achim, Los Alamos National Laboratory, USA
Shearwood, Christopher, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Shin, Kyuho, Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Korea
Shmaliy, Yuriy, Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics,
Ukraine
Khan, Asif, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
Kim, Min Young, Koh Young Technology, Inc., Korea South
Ko, Sang Choon, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute,
Korea South
Kockar, Hakan, Balikesir University, Turkey
Kotulska, Malgorzata, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland
Kratz, Henrik, Uppsala University, Sweden
Kumar, Arun, University of South Florida, USA
Kumar, Subodh, National Physical Laboratory, India
Kung, Chih-Hsien, Chang-Jung Christian University, Taiwan
Lacnjevac, Caslav, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Laurent, Francis, IMEC , Belgium
Silva Girao, Pedro, Technical University of Lisbon Portugal
Slomovitz, Daniel, UTE, Uruguay
Smith, Martin, Open University, UK
Lay-Ekuakille, Aime, University of Lecce, Italy
Lee, Jang Myung, Pusan National University, Korea South
Li, Genxi, Nanjing University, China
Soleymanpour, Ahmad, Damghan Basic Science University, Iran
Somani, Prakash R., Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology,
India
Li, Hui, Shanghai Jiaotong University, China
Srinivas, Talabattula, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
Srivastava, Arvind K., Northwestern University
Stefan-van Staden, Raluca-Ioana, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Sumriddetchka, Sarun, National Electronics and Computer Technology
Center, Thailand
Li, Xian-Fang, Central South University, China
Liang, Yuanchang, University of Washington, USA
Liawruangrath, Saisunee, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Liew, Kim Meow, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Lin, Hermann, National Kaohsiung University, Taiwan
Lin, Paul, Cleveland State University, USA
Sun, Chengliang, Polytechnic University, Hong-Kong
Sun, Dongming, Jilin University, China
Linderholm, Pontus, EPFL - Microsystems Laboratory, Switzerland
Liu, Aihua, Michigan State University, USA
Liu Changgeng, Louisiana State University, USA
Liu, Cheng-Hsien, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
Liu, Songqin, Southeast University, China
Lodeiro, Carlos, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Portugal
Lorenzo, Maria Encarnacio, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain
Ma, Zhanfang, Northeast Normal University, China
Majstorovic, Vidosav, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Marquez, Alfredo, Centro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados,
Mexico
Matay, Ladislav, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia
Mathur, Prafull, National Physical Laboratory, India
Maurya, D.K., Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Singapore
Mekid, Samir, University of Manchester, UK
Sun, Junhua, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, China
Sun, Zhiqiang, Central South University, China
Suri, C. Raman, Institute of Microbial Technology, India
Sysoev, Victor, Saratov State Technical University, Russia
Szewczyk, Roman, Industrial Research Institute for Automation and
Measurement, Poland
Tan, Ooi Kiang, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore,
Tang, Dianping, Southwest University, China
Tang, Jaw-Luen, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan
Thumbavanam Pad, Kartik, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Tsiantos, Vassilios, Technological Educational Institute of Kaval, Greece
Tsigara, Anna, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Greece
Twomey, Karen, University College Cork, Ireland
Valente, Antonio, University, Vila Real, - U.T.A.D., Portugal
Vaseashta, Ashok, Marshall University, USA
Mendes, Paulo, University of Minho, Portugal
Mennell, Julie, Northumbria University, UK
Mi, Bin, Boston Scientific Corporation, USA
Vazques, Carmen, Carlos III University in Madrid, Spain
Vieira, Manuela, Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa, Portugal
Vigna, Benedetto, STMicroelectronics, Italy
Minas, Graca, University of Minho, Portugal
Vrba, Radimir, Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic
Wandelt, Barbara, Technical University of Lodz, Poland
Wang, Jiangping, Xi'an Shiyou University, China
Wang, Kedong, Beihang University, China
Moghavvemi, Mahmoud, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Mohammadi, Mohammad-Reza, University of Cambridge, UK
Molina Flores, Esteban, Benemirita Universidad Autonoma de Puebla,
Mexico
Wang, Liang, Advanced Micro Devices, USA
Moradi, Majid, University of Kerman, Iran
Wang, Mi, University of Leeds, UK
Morello, Rosario, DIMET, University "Mediterranea" of Reggio Calabria,
Italy
Mounir, Ben Ali, University of Sousse, Tunisia
Wang, Shinn-Fwu, Ching Yun University, Taiwan
Wang, Wei-Chih, University of Washington, USA
Wang, Wensheng, University of Pennsylvania, USA
Watson, Steven, Center for NanoSpace Technologies Inc., USA
Weiping, Yan, Dalian University of Technology, China
Wells, Stephen, Southern Company Services, USA
Wolkenberg, Andrzej, Institute of Electron Technology, Poland
Woods, R. Clive, Louisiana State University, USA
Wu, DerHo, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology,
Taiwan
Wu, Zhaoyang, Hunan University, China
Xiu Tao, Ge, Chuzhou University, China
Xu, Tao, University of California, Irvine, USA
Yang, Dongfang, National Research Council, Canada
Yang, Wuqiang, The University of Manchester, UK
Ymeti, Aurel, University of Twente, Netherland
Yu, Haihu, Wuhan University of Technology, China
Yufera Garcia, Alberto, Seville University, Spain
Zagnoni, Michele, University of Southampton, UK
Zeni, Luigi, Second University of Naples, Italy
Mukhopadhyay, Subhas, Massey University, New Zealand
Neelamegam, Periasamy, Sastra Deemed University, India
Neshkova, Milka, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria
Oberhammer, Joachim, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
Ould Lahoucin, University of Guelma, Algeria
Pamidighanta, Sayanu, Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), India
Pan, Jisheng, Institute of Materials Research & Engineering, Singapore
Park, Joon-Shik, Korea Electronics Technology Institute, Korea South
Pereira, Jose Miguel, Instituto Politecnico de Setebal, Portugal
Petsev, Dimiter, University of New Mexico, USA
Pogacnik, Lea, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Post, Michael, National Research Council, Canada
Prance, Robert, University of Sussex, UK
Prasad, Ambika, Gulbarga University, India
Prateepasen, Asa, Kingmoungut's University of Technology, Thailand
Pullini, Daniele, Centro Ricerche FIAT, Italy
Pumera, Martin, National Institute for Materials Science, Japan
Radhakrishnan, S. National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, India
Rajanna, K., Indian Institute of Science, India
Zhong, Haoxiang, Henan Normal University, China
Zhang, Minglong, Shanghai University, China
Ramadan, Qasem, Institute of Microelectronics, Singapore
Rao, Basuthkar, Tata Inst. of Fundamental Research, India
Reig, Candid, University of Valencia, Spain
Restivo, Maria Teresa, University of Porto, Portugal
Rezazadeh, Ghader, Urmia University, Iran
Zhang, Qintao, University of California at Berkeley, USA
Zhang, Weiping, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Zhang, Wenming, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Zhou, Zhi-Gang, Tsinghua University, China
Zorzano, Luis, Universidad de La Rioja, Spain
Robert, Michel, University Henri Poincare, France
Zourob, Mohammed, University of Cambridge, UK
Sensors & Transducers Journal (ISSN 1726-5479) is a peer review international journal published monthly online by International Frequency Sensor Association (IFSA).
Available in electronic and CD-ROM. Copyright © 2007 by International Frequency Sensor Association. All rights reserved.
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Sensors & Transducers Journal
Contents
Volume 76
Issue 2
ISSN 1726-5479
February 2007
Research Articles
Biosensors: Future Analytical Tools
Vikas, Anjum, C. S. Pundir…………………………………………………………………………………...
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Advances in Biosensing Methods
Reema Taneja, Kennon C. Shelton, Raymond Carlisle, Ajit Sadana …………………………………..
Interface Layering Phenomena in Capacitance Detection of DNA with Biochips
Sandro Carrara, Frank K. Gürkaynak, Carlotta Guiducci, Claudio Stagni, Luca Benini, Yusuf
Leblebici, Bruno Samorì, Giovanni De Micheli…………………………………………………………….
969
978
A Simple and Sensitive Flow Injection Optical Fibre Biosensor Based on Immobilised
Enzyme for Monitoring of Pesticides
B. Kuswandi, N. W. Suwandari ……………………………………………………………………………..
Design and Characterization of a Solid-State Piezoelectric Transducer Chemical Sensor for
Chromium Ions Contamination in Water
Selemani Seif………………………………………………………………………………………………….
991
Influence of Liquid Petroleum Gas on the Electrical Parameters of the WO3 Thick Film
R. S. Khadayate, J.V. Sali and P. P. Patil……………………………………………………………........
1001
Synthesis, Characterization and Acetone Sensing Properties of Novel Strontium(II)-added
ZnAl2O4 Composites
J. Judith Vijaya, L. John Kennedy, G. Sekaran, K.S. Nagaraja …………………………………………
1008
1018
Short Communication
Investigating Solids, Liquids and Gases by Surface Photo-Charge Effect (SPCE)
Ognyan Ivanov…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Authors are encouraged to submit article in MS Word (doc) and Acrobat (pdf) formats by e-mail: [email protected]
International Frequency Sensor Association (IFSA).
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Sensors & Transducers Journal, Vol.76, Issue 2, February 2007, pp.935-936
Sensors & Transducers
ISSN 1726-5479
© 2007 by IFSA
Biosensors: Future Analytical Tools
Vikas, Anjum and C S Pundir*
Department of Biochemistry & Genetics, Maharashi Dayanand University, Rohtak-124001, India
Tel.: 00 91 09215570591; e-mail: [email protected]
Received: 10 October 2006 / Accepted: 22 February 2007 / Published: 26 February 2007
Abstract: Biosensors offer considerable promises for attaining the analytic information in a faster,
simpler and cheaper manner compared to conventional assays. Biosensing approach is rapidly
advancing and applications ranging from metabolite, biological/ chemical warfare agent, food
pathogens and adulterant detection to genetic screening and programmed drug delivery have been
demonstrated. Innovative efforts, coupling micromachining and nanofabrication may lead to even more
powerful devices that would accelerate the realization of large-scale and routine screening. With
gradual increase in commercialization a wide range of new biosensors are thus expected to reach the
market in the coming years.
Keywords: Electrode, transducers, genetic screening, food analysis, bioterrorism, environment
monitoring
1. Introduction
Modern economy is technology driven, promising revenues that are mind-boggling. Biosensor is one
such product of biotechnology that is becoming increasingly popular in fields like environmental
monitoring [1-2], bioterrorism [2-3], food analyses [4] and most importantly in the area of health care
and diagnostics [5]. This rapidly expanding field has an annual growth rate of 60 %, with major
impetus from the health-care industry (30% of the world’s total analytical market) supported with
other analytical areas of food & environmental monitoring including defense needs [6]. There is
clearly a vast market exponential potential as less than .1% of this market is currently using biosensors.
Research & Development in this field is wide and at the forefront of multidisciplinary science that
involves the collaboration of physics, chemistry, biology, nanotechnology, electronics and software
engineering. The concept of biosensors is just four decades old and the feasibility of biosensing was
first demonstrated by an American scientist Leland C. Clark in 1962. He described how to make
electrochemical sensors more intelligent by adding "enzyme transducers as membrane enclosed
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Sensors & Transducers Journal, Vol.76, Issue 2, February 2007, pp.935-936
sandwiches”[7]. This idea was commercially exploited in 1975 with the successful launch of the
Yellow Springs Instrument Company’s glucose analyzer based on the amperometric detection of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Since then, many biosensors have been developed to detect a wide range of
biochemical parameters, using a number of approaches, each having a different degree of complexity
and efficiency. Recently, the most fascinating and prospective sensors includes Immunosensors [8-9]
and Nucleic acid sensors [10-11], based on affinity reactions between Ab-Ag & hybridization reaction
of complimentary ssDNA oligonucleotides respectively.
In general, a biosensor is an analytical device, which detects, transmit and record the information
regarding the physiological, biochemical change or the presence of a specific analyte (a chemical or
biological substance that needs to be measured) by producing a signal proportional to the concentration
of the target analyte. A basic biosensors assembly includes a receptor, transducer and processor
(amplification and display) as shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing the main components of a biosensor. The biocatalyst (a) converts the
substrate to product. This reaction is determined by the transducer (b) which converts it to a signal. The output
from the transducer is amplified (c), processed (d) and displayed (e).
(Reproduced with permission from ref. 6).
Technically, it is a probe which incorporates a biological/ biologically derived sensing element (e.g.
whole cells/ antibodies/ enzymes/ nucleic acids) forming a recognition layer, that is either integrated
within or intimately associated to the second major component of biosensors that is a transducer via
immobilization, adsorption, cross-linking and covalent bonding so that the close proximity of the
biological component to the transducer is achieved. This is necessary so that the transducer can rapidly
and easily generate the specific signals in response to the undergoing biochemical interactions,
secondly the transmittance should be proportional to the reaction rate of biocatalyst with the measured
analyte for a high range of linearity. The transducer critically acts like a translator, recognizes the
biological/chemical event from the biological component and transforms it into another signal for
interpretation by the processor that converts it in to a readable/ measurable out put. The transducer can
take many forms depending upon the type of parameters being measured. They may be a)
Amperometric: detect changes in current at constant potential [12], b) Potentiometer: detect changes in
potential at constant current [13], c) Piezoelectric: detect the changes in mass [14], d) Thermal:
measures changes in temperature [15], e) Optical: detects change in light transmission [16].
Since, these devices offer an excellent combination of the selective biology with the processing power
of nano-electronics to generate rapid, simple and sensitive signal proportional to the target analyte;
they are regarded as potent substitutes to conventional analytical techniques. These low complexity
devices are suited for use at the point of care by healthcare workers with minimal training. By
eliminating a number of steps and much labor, the instrumentation may save a lot of money & time for
laboratories and hospitals. It would therefore in the near future be possible to measure group of
biochemical parameters simultaneously from a single finger prick blood sample. Besides, they allow
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Sensors & Transducers Journal, Vol.76, Issue 2, February 2007, pp.935-936
the clinical analysis to be performed at the bedside, in the critical care units and doctor’s clinic rather
than in the centralized laboratories.
2. Biosensors in Health Care and Diagnostics
With rising healthcare costs and to improve patient care, diagnostic laboratories have been challenged
to develop new tests that are reliable, cost–effective and accurate and to optimize existing protocols by
making them faster and more economical. Although there are number of commercial successes, but
most successful to date is the glucose biosensor [17] for routine monitoring of glucose in blood by
individuals suffering from diabetes. The basic principle is that glucose is recognized by the bioreceptor
layer i.e. the glucose oxidase enzyme to yield the redox active species like hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
and gluconic acid. Out of these H2O2 passes through a series of membranes and is finally detected at
the working electrode. The resulting electrical current is amplified and recorded. Other compounds,
which may give an artificial signal or foul the electrode, are excluded by the membrane system.
Companies are fabricating implantable biosensors that can trace blood glucose levels and
simultaneously deliver insulin. For example “Microchips” is testing a chip implant that offers long
term, time-controlled drug delivery [18]. Compatibility with microfabrication and ability to store and
release drugs on demand would have potential applications in medical diagnostics, industrial process
monitoring and control, combinatorial chemistry, microbiology, and fragrance delivery[19]. More
importantly, it may provide new treatment options to clinicians in their fight against disease. The next
step is to develop a manually, wirelessly controlled biosensor that detects and treats an acute condition,
and then a biosensor that will approximate an artificial organ. This will permit sensing a condition and
responding automatically without user intervention.
Biosensors also offer enormous potential in detecting wide range of analytes that are regularly needed
to show a patient’s metabolic state especially for those who are hospitalized, more so if they are in
intensive care. Critical care is one of the most challenging (and stressful) areas of medicine, in the
sense that the decision makers (primarily doctors, nurses and ambulance staff) must take their
decisions quickly. At the moment of first examination, the patient’s clinical state is usually unknown,
and once known, it is prone to rapid change. The earlier these fundamental clinical data are provided; a
reasoned therapeutic decision can be taken instantly for enhancing success rate. Biosensors that
facilitate the measurement of calcium[20], lithium[21], lactate[22], cholesterol[23], urea[24], uric
acid[25], oxalate[26], triglycerides[27], ascorbic acid[28] and creatinine[29] have been demonstrated
and needs refinement for commercial viability. External biosensors are used in emergency rooms as
point-of-care diagnostic units – such as I-Stat’s “lab on a chip”, which can reveal almost immediately
whether a patient is under cardiac arrest by testing blood chemistry[30]. Similarly, it will be extremely
helpful to have instantaneous on-site determinations for creatinine, sodium, potassium, chloride, and
CO2 levels of patients in the dialysis unit of a hospital or at a hemodialysis center.
Several variants of the classical biosensors are already thriving in the medical field. A new biosensor
technology based on magneto-resistive sensors is introduced by Philips [31]. This biosensor measures
the magnetic field created by magnetic nano-particles that bind to target molecules in a biological
assay. Compared with optical sensing methods, the use of magnetic nano-particles eliminates the
additional steps required to bind optical labels to the target molecules and improves sensitivity.
Oak Ridge National laboratory (ORNL) has developed “Medical Telesensor” chip (Fig-2) which can
measure and transmit data related to body temperature [32]. Similar chips are being developed as a
defense need for military personals to transmit data essential data to the remote monitor. This monitor
alerts the medical team in critical circumstances.
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.
Fig. 2. This "medical telesensor" chip on a fingertip can measure and transmit body temperature
(Courtesy: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ref. 32).
3. Biosensing and Nucleic Acid Analyses
Over the past two decades, the practice of DNA sequence detection has become more ubiquitous and
will continue to increase exponentially in genetics (primary patient diagnosis, carrier detection and
prenatal diagnosis), pathology, criminology, food safety and biological warfare agents. This has been
driven partly by the quantity of DNA sequence information that we have collected on humans and
other organisms and partly by the increasing technological advances that provides us with the tools
needed to develop new techniques to monitor biorecognition and interaction events. Current
methods[33] for the identification of a particular DNA base sequence in a biological sample begin with
the isolation of intact, double-stranded DNA and employ the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to
amplify the region of interest. The PCR product can then be subjected to electrophoresis or adsorbed
directly onto a membrane, which is then exposed to a solution containing a DNA probe which has been
chemically or enzymatically labeled with a radioactive material, chemiluminophore or hapten / ligand
such as biotin to provide detectable signal for DNA hybridization. Radioactive materials are extremely
sensitive, but have the obvious disadvantage of short self-life & high cost. Radioactive assay can not
be done in open or ordinary labs which are not well equipped for handling, storage & dumping of
radioactive materials. Fluorescent dye labels are expensive, they photobleach rapidly & are less
sensitive. Most recently, Luminescent semiconductor nanocrystals (or “quantum dots”, QD) have been
used as labels for bioanalytical applications [34-35]. Thermoquenching and extremely high cost are
potent disadvantages of Quantum dots and hence generally limited to use in sensitive research
experiments. There fore, large-scale, routine clinical screening based on gene diagnostics is limited by
the current available technologies. Remarkably, DNA Biosensor technology can provide rapid, simple
and low-cost on field detection of specific DNA sequence (pathogenic, virulent, transgenic) or point
mutations that are responsible for, or linked to, inherited diseases. Diseases such as cystic fibrosis,
muscular dystrophy, sickle-cell anemia, phenylketonuria, β-thalassemia and hemophilia A are known
to be associated with specific changes in normal DNA base sequence. The list of known genetic
abnormalities that cause, or are associated with, disease states will continue to expand as the
sequencing of the human genome continues. During sensing of nucleic acids, single-stranded (ss)
oligonucleotide probe are immobilized onto transducer surface forming a recognition layer that binds
its complementary (target) DNA sequence to form a hybrid. The hybridization reaction is recognized
and analytical signal (light, current, frequency) is passed by the transducer to the processor to provide
a readable output. The measurement system (transducer and read out device or signal processor) can be
gravimetric [36], electrochemical [37], optical [38], electrical [39], surface plasma resonance [40]
based. Electrochemical DNA biosensor based detection show superior results over the other existing
measurement systems. Basic principle of DNA biosensor is based on the properties that 1) DNA is
double helical and has strong stacking interaction between bases along axis of double-helix and the
base-pairing interactions between complimentary sequences are both specific and robust. 2) Double
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Sensors & Transducers Journal, Vol.76, Issue 2, February 2007, pp.935-936
stranded DNA shows long- range electron transfer through π stacks of aromatic rings of base pairs [41-
42]. The first example of a DNA chip, called the eSensorTM, was produced by Motorola Life Sciences
Inc. [43]. eSensorTM bioelectric chips also successfully detected 86% of the HPV types contained in
clinical samples[44]. Toshiba’s electrochemical DNA hybridization detection system is called the
GenelyzerTM [45]. It contains an electrochemical DNA chip that is able to analyze and type single-
nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and common DNA sequence variations by using the redox-active
dye Hoechst33258 [46].
4. Applications in Food Analyses and Quality Assurance
Safety monitoring and quality control of foods are essential for food industry and the use of biosensors
allows the assessment of food safety in real time. Hence biosensors have been developed for
automated process control and provide a good alternative to other methods which are tedious, time &
energy consuming and may require expensive instruments and reagents in addition to considerable
technical skills4. The importance of on-line measurement compared to a laboratory measurement in
terms of process control is firstly its response time. Sampling and subsequent analysis in a laboratory
involves a time delay which can be sometimes several days. Although laboratory instruments have
some inherent advantages, on-line biosensor describes the real time state of the process. Data
generated from the biosensor provide rapid and/or continuous feedback information which can help the
food processor both reduce wastage and increase productivity by incorporating microbiological and
quality control into processing line. Because foods are highly unstable materials and can quickly
undergo rapid and often detrimental changes, process control is an uncertain and doubtful strategy.
Because of this, food industry needs instruments which will simultaneously monitor the parameters of
production lines and report data to the computer for feedback control.
Most of the electrodes used in biosensors are often based on the measurement of O2 consumption
because there are at least 50 known oxidases acting on fatty acids, hydroxy acids, sugars, amino acids,
aldehydes, etc. Using this concept ethanol, methanol, lactose, lactic and acetic acid, glucose and
galactose on line biosensors have been developed by different researchers.
Beer, wine, bread and dairy industry suffer from lack of monitoring the growth conditions of
microorganisms which must be kept at certain limits. On-line biosensors offer these industries
feedback control of both the component and microbial levels of these and similar processes by
continual on-line monitoring.
A unique situation that recently has come to light in India is the adulteration of milk with materials that
are toxic or production of synthetic milk using ingredients such as urea. Biosensors have already been
developed to check this menace. For example, urea is detected in milk samples by employing the
enzyme unease. Urea and water are converted to ammonium and bicarbonate ions in the aqueous
medium. Bicarbonate ions are weak ions so contribute less to the pH change but the alkaline ions due
to their high alkaline nature contributes maximally to the pH change which is detected by the
potentiometric transducer.
5. Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring
With several countries on the path to acquiring chemical and biological weapons there is now a need to
develop biosensors for the early detection of these agents in accidental release during production and
deliberate use by terrorists. Defense applications have become very prominent, particularly since the
atrocities of September 11th 2002 and the subsequent anthrax attacks. To circumvent this latest threat
to human health, efforts are underway to develop biosensors that could be used under these situations.
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Biological and chemical warfare agents have broad threat spectrum, ranging from relatively simple
chemical agents to complex bioengineered microorganisms. Traditional chemical agents (nerve,
vesicant, and blood agents) have acute toxicities in the range of 10–3 g/person and are relatively easy to
detect. Emerging chemical agents (toxic chemicals and aerosols) and bioregulators (neuropeptides and
psychoactive compounds) are more varied in their chemical structure, requiring more sophisticated
analytical methods for identification and detection. The most difficult chemical agents to detect are the
cytotoxins and neurotoxins with chronic toxicities as low as 10–10 g/person. To identify and detect this
complex array of chemicals, the ideal instrument would respond within min, cover the 15 to 200,000
dalton threat beside field portability. Despite the public’s anticipation that biosensors with real-time
detection will be able to monitor biological and chemical weapons, the technology hasn’t caught up
with expectations. Presently, biosensors in environmental monitoring stations, worldwide can detect
compounds like anthrax – but detection can take 12 to 24 hours. Sandia National Laboratories, USA is
developing the µChemLab, a system that detects biotoxins in 5 minutes [2]. Currently they are trying
to upgrade the µChemLab to integrate both gas-based and liquid-based analysis into one handheld
device. This type of biosensor could be incorporated into military uniforms and eventually into high
security buildings.
6. Future Prospects and Popularization of Biosensors
Simplicity, quick results and economic advantages are enabling new procedures in hospitals while
increasing the possibilities for self-care. For the biosensor to be of optimal use, it must be at least as
precise and standardized as other available technology. Personnel with minimum training should be
able to use these devices. Collecting and analyzing specimen at the bedside or in the clinic will
enhance the superior turnaround time of biosensors. Reducing blood specimen volumes to micro (µ)
level may permit continuous on-line monitoring of critical blood chemistries and has the advantage of
creating less blood to clean up hence reducing the potential for infectious contamination from patient
blood. It is anticipated that the health care worker at the bedside of a hospital patient µl aliquot of
whole blood directly into the chip, and insert the chip into a portable biosensor instrument. In addition,
a single chip insert may measure multiple parameters. This multi-specialty in itself will save
considerable time and effort over the specimen processing that constitutes a substantial part of today’s
laboratory workload. In addition, mass-produced disposable biosensors will make medical diagnosis
cheaper. The world total analytical market is approx ₤12000, 000, 000/ year and less than .1% of this
market is currently using biosensors. Despite huge market potential & except for few commercial
successes, many of the prototypes of biosensors in our laboratories are not commercially viable. The
gap between research and the market place still remains wide and commercialization of biosensor
technology has continued to lag behind the research by several years. Some of the many reasons
includes: cost considerations, stability and sensitivity issues, quality assurance and competitive
technologies. Until all these issues are addressed it would be difficult to move these devices from the
research lab to market place. Biosensors undisputedly have got tremendous applications in healthcare,
but the level of sophistication, reliability, awareness, cost, availability and marketing of these devices
are important for deciding whether biosensors will be popular in the near future.
7. Conclusion
Biosensors are analytical devices which can transform biological recognition into a measurable signal.
Our fascination with biosensor world is due to its exponential potential in analytical market. This
multidisciplinary field offers potential applications in clinical diagnostics, defense, food and beverage
industry, pollution control. In addition to sensitivity, simplicity and fast processing power, micro
fabrication technology enhances biosensors with desired specifications. There is a great need to bring
synergy among R&D institutions and Government, Industrial houses that leads to smooth transmission
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of technology. The level of sophistication, awareness, cost, reliability, availability and marketing are
all factors involved in deciding, whether biosensors would become popular in near future.
Acknowledgment
Biosensor work in author’s lab is funded by Department of Biotechnology and Department of Science
& Technology, New Delhi.
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